Estimated reading time: 6 minutes
Producers should work closely with their veterinarians to develop programmes that include parasite control, nutrition, grazing management, and other health measures.
Livestock producers invest significantly in purchasing vaccines and developing herd health programmes. However, if vaccines are mishandled or vaccination protocols are applied inconsistently, that investment is wasted.
Zoetis South Africa’s Livestock Vaccine Handling Guide promotes best practices for vaccine handling and highlights practical measures that can improve vaccination efficiency on the farm. The guide was developed by Dr Schabort Froneman, veterinarian and ruminant technical manager at Zoetis, and Dr Natanya Smit, marketing manager.
Earlier this year, Dr Froneman discussed the guide’s key principles in a three-part mini-series on Plaas Media’s YouTube channel, Plaas TV. The series follows the guide’s structure and covers the phases before, during and after vaccination, providing a practical checklist that includes the fundamentals and often-overlooked aspects of vaccine handling.
Preparation is key
Successful immunisation begins before animals are vaccinated. The first step is to read the vaccine label carefully, as it provides essential information on dosage, route of administration, and safety precautions, including its use during pregnancy. Moreover, maintaining an uninterrupted cold chain from manufacture to administration is vital; any interruption can reduce vaccine efficacy and compromise herd protection. Vaccines must also be protected from ultraviolet light.
Careful planning ensures that groups of animals are vaccinated efficiently and under suitable conditions. Coordinating vaccination schedules also allows specific animal groups to be vaccinated simultaneously. Vaccine preparation and powder dissolution in water (reconstitution) must be done shortly before use and at the crush.
Dr Froneman says that interruptions in the cold chain are among the leading causes of vaccine failure. Vaccines should be stored continuously between 2 and 7°C. Exposure to freezing or high temperatures can reduce their effectiveness or render them completely useless.
Maintaining the cold chain need not be complicated. A cooler, ice packs and a thermometer are sufficient for transporting vaccines from the supplier to the crush while maintaining the correct temperature. The same principles apply to on-farm storage. Vaccines should never be stored against the back wall of a refrigerator, where they may freeze, or in the door, where temperatures fluctuate.
Take a holistic approach
“Good herd health programmes are essential for productivity and profitability, and vaccination is only one component of an integrated programme,” says Dr Froneman. Producers should work closely with their veterinarians to develop programmes that include parasite control, nutrition, grazing management, and other health measures.
Different classes of livestock – such as bulls, cows, heifers, and calves – have different vaccination requirements. Some vaccines may be administered simultaneously, while others have specific schedules. Developing an effective vaccination programme therefore requires careful planning and should be tailored to the farm’s production system and geographical location. This improves herd immunity and ensures the programme is cost-effective.
Be aware of adverse reactions
The guide cautions producers to use vaccines containing trace minerals carefully to avoid overdosing. Although relatively uncommon, some vaccines contain added trace minerals. In these cases, multimineral supplements must not be administered simultaneously, as this may result in toxicity.
Producers should also be aware of the small risk of anaphylaxis – a severe allergic reaction that typically occurs within 20 minutes of vaccination. Signs include restlessness, breathing difficulties, and facial swelling. Dr Froneman advises producers to develop an emergency response plan with their veterinarians and to have appropriate medication available.
Swelling or lumps at the injection site are some of the more common post-vaccination reactions. Certain vaccines contain oil-based adjuvants that may cause temporary reactions, but poor hygiene or inadequate aseptic technique can also result in abscess formation. Regular needle replacement and proper vaccine handling is therefore essential.
Best practices during vaccination
Vaccines must be transported to the kraal or crush in a cooler with ice packs and a thermometer. Once removed from the cooler, they should be used efficiently while avoiding unnecessary exposure to heat. “When there are breaks between groups of animals, return vaccine bottles to the cooler to maintain the cold chain,” explains Dr Froneman.
Good hygiene during vaccination is equally important. Although fully sterile conditions are not always possible in the field, maintaining good hygiene is achievable. Hands, equipment and the work environment should be kept as clean as possible. Animals should be clean and dry, and needles should be replaced regularly to reduce the risk of infection.
Use only sharp and undamaged needles. Automatic vaccination devices should be calibrated regularly to ensure accurate dosing. The vaccine must also be calibrated. “For example, if any vaccine remains in a bottle that should have delivered 50 doses, you know it has not been calibrated correctly.”
Producers must ensure that vaccine bottles are sealed and have not exceeded their expiry dates before use. Needle length and gauge should be selected based on the animal species and route of administration. Intramuscular injections require longer needles than subcutaneous injections. Producers should always consult the vaccine package insert, which typically specifies the recommended needle size. The Zoetis guide also provides practical recommendations for needle selection according to species and injection method.
Sick or stressed animals should not be vaccinated. While this is not always practical, it depends largely on the production system. For example, feedlot calves are sourced from multiple regions and often experience stress during their first vaccination, which is not ideal. Cow-calf operations generally offer producers greater flexibility to vaccinate animals when stress levels are lower.
Animals that are sick or stressed mount a weaker immune response, reducing vaccine efficacy. The same applies to animals with a poor nutritional status; emaciated or malnourished animals are also less likely to develop adequate immunity.
Don’t relax yet
Completing the vaccination process is not the final step. “Proper aftercare is essential to make future vaccinations easier and more effective,” says Dr Froneman. Automatic vaccination equipment and needles should be cleaned and sterilised as soon as possible after use, as dry and sticky vaccine residue is difficult to remove.
Rinse equipment thoroughly with lukewarm water to remove all vaccine residue. Avoid disinfectants because residual chemicals may damage live vaccines during subsequent use. Mild soap may be used if necessary, although lukewarm water is generally sufficient. Dosing guns dedicated to specific vaccines (for example, brucellosis vaccines) should be clearly labelled and reserved exclusively for that purpose. – Christal-Lize Muller, Stockfarm
The Zoetis guide is available from local Zoetis representatives. Scan the QR code or visit Plaas TV’s YouTube channel to watch the first episode of the three-part series on vaccine handling principles.
For more information, email Dr Schabort Froneman at schabort.froneman@zoetis.com or Dr Natanya Smit at natanya.smit@zoetis.com
